Regra de três: teorias da conspiração sobre Covid-19 no YouTube
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18264/repdcec.v3i3.227Palavras-chave:
Covid-19, Teoria da Conspiração, YouTubeResumo
Teorias da conspiração podem causar danos reais à sociedade e seus impactos podem ser ainda mais drásticos em circunstâncias de crise, como a pandemia de Covid-19. O trabalho investiga uma amostra de 198 vídeos produzidos por 21 canais brasileiros do YouTube previamente identificados como disseminadores de teorias da conspiração sobre a pandemia. A análise de conteúdo foi adotada como metodologia, utilizando os elementos do lead jornalístico como categorias. As principais teorias encontradas foram “Nova Ordem Mundial”, “Plandemia”, “Big Pharma”, “Perseguição a Bolsonaro” e “Marxismo Cultural”. Denominações ocultas, como “sistema” e “elite”, personalidades, mídia, governo e cientistas destacaram-se como atores. Entre os mecanismos citados nos vídeos sobressaem-se tecnologias como inteligência artificial e 5G e as vacinas contra a Covid-19. A maioria dos canais da amostra permanece ativa, apesar de as políticas de combate à desinformação sobre a Covid-19 terem sido implementadas há três anos pela plataforma. É preciso compreender a dinâmica das teorias da conspiração que circulam em plataformas amplamente utilizadas pela população brasileira para a identificação e o desenvolvimento de abordagens adequadas. Desse modo, o estudo demonstra estratégias consideradas efetivas para a mitigação desse problema e sugere possíveis recortes para futuras pesquisas.
Referências
ALBUQUERQUE, A.; OLIVEIRA, T. M.; JR, M. A. S. et al. Coronavirus meets the clash of civilizations. Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, v. 28, n. 4, p. 1198–1213, 2022. doi: 10.1177/13548565221105789
ALLGAIER, J. Science and Medicine on YouTube. In: HUNSINGER, J; KLASTRUP, L; ALLEN, M. M. Second International Handbook of Internet Research. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2018, p. 1–21. doi: 10.1007/978-94-024-1202-4_1-1
ARGUEDAS, A. R.; BANERJEE, S.; MONT’ALVERNE, C. et al. News for the Powerful and Privileged: How Misrepresentation and Underrepresentation of Disadvantaged Communities Undermine Their Trust in News. Oxford: Reuters Institute; University of Oxford, 2023. Disponível em: https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/noticias-para-os-poderosos-e-privilegiados-como-representacoes-deturpadas-ou-insuficientes-de. Acesso em: 11 abr. 2023.
BANAI, I.; BANAI, B.; MIKLOUŠIĆ, I. Beliefs in COVID-19 conspiracy theories, compliance with the preventive measures, and trust in government medical officials. Current Psychology, 2021. doi: 10.1007/s12144-021-01898-y
BARDIN, L. Análise de conteúdo. Tradução: Luís Antero Reto; Tradução: Augusto Pinheiro. 1a. ed. Lisboa: Edições 70, 2011.
BARKUN, M. A culture of conspiracy: apocalyptic visions in contemporary America. 2. ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013.
BERTIN, P.; NERA, K.; DELOUVÉE, S. Conspiracy Beliefs, Rejection of Vaccination, and Support for hydroxychloroquine: A Conceptual Replication-Extension in the COVID-19 Pandemic Context. Frontiers in Psychology, v. 11, p. 565128, 2020. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.565128
BIERWIACZONEK, K.; KUNST, J. R.; PICH, O. Belief in COVID‐19 Conspiracy Theories Reduces Social Distancing over Time. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, v. 12, n. 4, p. 1270–1285, dez. 2020. doi: /10.1111/aphw.12223
BÍRÓ-NAGY, A.; SZÁSZI, A. J. The roots of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy: evidence from Hungary. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, v. 46, n. 1–2, p. 185–200, 2023. doi: 10.1007/s10865-022-00314-5
BLASKIEWICZ, R. The Big Pharma conspiracy theory. Medical Writing, v. 22, n. 4, p. 259–261, 2013. doi: 10.1179/2047480613Z.000000000142
BORA, K.; DAS, D.; BARMAN, B. et al. Are internet videos useful sources of information during global public health emergencies? A case study of YouTube videos during the 2015–16 Zika virus pandemic. Pathogens and Global Health, v. 112, n. 6, p. 320-328, 2018. doi: 10.1080/20477724.2018.1507784
BROTAS, A. M. P.; COSTA, M. C. R.; ORTIZ, J. et al. Discurso antivacina no YouTube: a mediação de influenciadores. Revista Eletrônica de Comunicação, Informação e Inovação em Saúde, v. 15, n. 1, 2021. doi: 10.29397/reciis.v15i1.2281
BUTTER, M.; KNIGHT, P. Covid-19 Conspiracy Theories in Global Perspective. In: KNIGHT, P. (Ed.). Covid conspiracy theories in global perspective. [s.l.] Routledge, 2023. doi: 10.4324/9781003330769-2
CASTANHO SILVA, B.; VEGETTI, F.; LITTVAY, L. The Elite Is Up to Something: Exploring the Relation Between Populism and Belief in Conspiracy Theories. Swiss Political Science Review, v. 23, n. 4, p. 423–443, dez. 2017. doi: 10.1111/spsr.12270
CENTER FOR COUNTERING DIGITAL HATE (CCDH). The Anti-Vaxx Industry. How Big Tech powers and profits from anti-vaccine misinformation. CCDH, 2020. Disponível em: https://www.counterhate.com/anti-vaxx-industry. Acesso em 2 fev. 2021.
DA SILVA, W. T.; SUGAMOSTO, A.; ARAUJO, U. I. O Marxismo Cultural No Brasil: Origens e Desdobramentos de uma Tepria Conservadora. Cultura y religión, v. 15, n. 1, p. 180–222, 2021. doi: 10.4067/S0718-4727202100010018
DIB, F.; MAYAUD, P.; CHAUVIN, P. et al. Online mis/disinformation and vaccine hesitancy in the era of COVID-19: Why we need an eHealth literacy revolution. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, v. 18, n. 1, p. 1–3, 24 fev. 2021. doi: 10.1080/21645515.2021.1874218
DONOVAN, J.; FRIEDBERG, B.; LIM, G. et al. Mitigating Medical Misinformation: A Whole-of-society Approach to Countering Spam, Scams, and Hoaxes. [s.l.]: Technology and Social Change Research Project, 2021. doi: 10.37016/TASC-2021-03
DRINKWATER, K.; DAGNALL, N.; DENOVAN, A. et al. Predictors and Associates of Problem–Reaction–Solution: Statistical Bias, Emotion-Based Reasoning, and Belief in the Paranormal. SAGE Open, v. 8, n. 1, p. 215824401876299, 2018. doi: 10.1177/2158244018762999
ECKER, U. K. H.; LEWANDOWSKY, S.; COOK, J. et al. The psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its resistance to correction. Nature Reviews Psychology, v. 1, n. 1, p. 13–29, 12 jan. 2022. doi: 10.1038/s44159-021-00006-y
EINSTEIN, K. L.; GLICK, D. M. Do I Think BLS Data are BS? The Consequences of Conspiracy Theories. Political Behavior, v. 37, n. 3, p. 679–701, 2015. doi: 10.1007/s11109-014-9287-z
FREEMAN, D.; WAITE, F.; ROSEBROCK, L. et al. Coronavirus conspiracy beliefs, mistrust, and compliance with government guidelines in England. Psychological Medicine, p. 1–13, 2020. doi: 10.1017/S0033291720001890
GERTS, D.; SHELLEY, C. D.; PARIKH, N. et al. “Thought I’d Share First” and Other Conspiracy Theory Tweets from the COVID-19 Infodemic: Exploratory Study. JMIR Public Health and Surveillance, v. 7, n. 4, p. e26527, 2021. doi: 10.2196/26527
HA, L.; GRAHAM, T.; GRAY, J. Where conspiracy theories flourish: A study of YouTube comments and Bill Gates conspiracy theories. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 2022. doi: 10.37016/mr-2020-107
HARRIS, C. R.; MILLMAN, K. J.; VAN DER WALT, S. J. et al. Array programming with NumPy. Nature, v. 585, n. 7825, p. 357–362, 2020. doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2649-2
HATZIKIDI, K. “The Communavirus Is Here” Anti-Communist Conspiracy Theories in Brazil’s Response to the Covid-19 Pandemic. In: BUTTER, M.; KNIGHT, P. (Eds.). Covid Conspiracy Theories in Global Perspective. [s.l.] Routledge, 2023. p. 366–378. doi: 10.4324/9781003330769-34
JENNINGS, W.; STOKER, G.; BUNTING, H. et al. Lack of Trust, Conspiracy Beliefs, and Social Media Use Predict COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy. Vaccines, v. 9, n. 6, p. 593, 2021. doi: 10.3390/vaccines9060593
JIANG, S.; ROBERTSON, R. E.; WILSON, C. Bias Misperceived: The Role of Partisanship and Misinformation in YouTube Comment Moderation. Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media, v. 13, p. 278–289, 2019. doi: 10.1609/icwsm.v13i01.3229
JOLLEY, D.; DOUGLAS, K. M. The Effects of Anti-Vaccine Conspiracy Theories on Vaccination Intentions. PLoS ONE, v. 9, n. 2, p. e89177, 2014. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089177
KALIL, I.; SILVEIRA, S. C.; PINHEIRO, W. et al. Politics of fear in Brazil: Far-right conspiracy theories on COVID-19. Global Discourse, v. 11, n. 3, p. 409–425, 2021. doi: 10.1332/204378921X16193452552605
KATA, A. Anti-vaccine activists, Web 2.0, and the postmodern paradigm – An overview of tactics and tropes used online by the anti-vaccination movement. Vaccine, v. 30, n. 25, p. 3778–3789, 2012. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.11.112
KEARNEY, M. D.; CHIANG, S. C.; MASSEY, P. M. The Twitter origins and evolution of the COVID-19 “plandemic” conspiracy theory. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 2020. doi: 10.37016/mr-2020-42
MACHADO, C. C. V.; DOURADO, D. A.; SANTOS, J. G. et al. Ciência contaminada. Analisando o contágio de desinformação sobre coronavírus via YouTube. LAUT; INCT.DD; Cepedisa, 2020. Disponível em: https://laut.org.br/ciencia-contaminada.pdf. Acesso em: 30 abr. 2023.
MACHADO, D. F. T.; FIORAVANTE DE SIQUEIRA, A.; RALLO SHIMIZU, N. et al. It-which-must-not-be-named: COVID-19 misinformation, tactics to profit from it and to evade content moderation on YouTube. Frontiers in Communication, v. 7, p. 1037432, 2022. doi: 10.3389/fcomm.2022.1037432
MAHL, D.; ZENG, J.; SCHÄFER, M. S. From “Nasa Lies” to “Reptilian Eyes”: Mapping Communication About 10 Conspiracy Theories, Their Communities, and Main Propagators on Twitter. Social Media + Society, v. 7, n. 2, p. 205630512110174, 2021. doi: 10.1177/20563051211017482
MAHL, D.; SCHÄFER, M. S.; ZENG, J. Conspiracy theories in online environments: An interdisciplinary literature review and agenda for future research. New Media & Society, p. 146144482210757, 2022. doi: 10.1177/14614448221075759
NEWMAN, N.; FLETCHER, R.; ROBERTSON, C. T. et al. Reuters Institute Digital News Report 2022. [s.l.] Reuters Institute; University of Oxford, 2022. Disponível em: https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/digital-news-report/2022. Acesso em: 22 abr. 2023.
O’MAHONY, C.; BRASSIL, M.; MURPHY, G. et al. The efficacy of interventions in reducing belief in conspiracy theories: A systematic review. PLOS ONE, v. 18, n. 4, p. e0280902, 2023. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0280902
OLIVEIRA, T.; WANG, Z.; XU, J. Scientific Disinformation in Times of Epistemic Crisis: Circulation of Conspiracy Theories on Social Media Platforms. Online Media and Global Communication, v. 1, n. 1, p. 164–186, 2022. doi: 10.1515/omgc-2022-0005
PANDEY, A; PATNI, N.; SINGH, M. et al. YouTube As a Source of Information on the H1N1 Influenza Pandemic. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, v. 38, n. 3, p. e1-e3, 2010. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2009.11.007
PATHAK, R.; POUDEL, D.; KARMACHARYA, P. et al. Youtube as a source of information on Ebola virus disease. North American Journal of Medical Sciences, v. 7, n. 7, p. 306-309, 2015. doi: 10.4103/1947-2714.161244
PILTCH-LOEB, R.; HARRIMAN, N. W.; HEALEY, J. et al. COVID-19 Vaccine Concerns about Safety, Effectiveness, and Policies in the United States, Canada, Sweden, and Italy among Unvaccinated Individuals. Vaccines, v. 9, n. 10, p. 1138, 2021. doi: 10.3390/vaccines9101138
PÖTTKER, H. News and its communicative quality: the inverted pyramid—when and why did it appear? Journalism Studies, v. 4, n. 4, p. 501–511, 2003. doi: 10.1080/1461670032000136596
QUINAN, R.; ARAUJO, M.; ALBUQUERQUE, A. Culpa é da China!: O discurso sino-conspiratório no governo Bolsonaro em tempos de COVID-19. Revista ECO-Pós, v. 24, n. 2, p. 151–174, 2021. doi: 10.29146/ecopos.v24i2.27698
ROBERTSON, D. G.; DYRENDAL, A. Conspiracy theories and religion; superstition, seekership, and salvation. In: USCINSKI, J. E. (Org.). Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them. [s.l.]: Oxford University Press, 2018.
ROGERS, R. Deplatforming: Following extreme Internet celebrities to Telegram and alternative social media. European Journal of Communication, v. 35, n. 3, p. 213–229, 2020. doi: 10.1177/0267323120922066
ROMER, D.; JAMIESON, K. H. Conspiracy theories as barriers to controlling the spread of COVID-19 in the U.S. Social Science & Medicine, v. 263, p. 113356, 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113356
SALLAM, M; DABABSEH, D.; EID, H. et al. High Rates of COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Its Association with Conspiracy Beliefs: A Study in Jordan and Kuwait among Other Arab Countries. Vaccines, v. 9, n. 1, p. 42, 2021. doi: 10.3390/vaccines9010042
SANTINI, R. M.; SALLES, D.; BARROS, C. E. We love to hate George Soros: A cross-platform analysis of the Globalism conspiracy theory campaign in Brazil. Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, v. 28, n. 4, p. 135485652210858, 8 maio 2022. doi: 10.1177/13548565221085833
SAYED, M. A.; SYED, H.; GURU, N. K. et al. Hesitancy of COVID-19 vaccine in a working-age population in a town in Central Maharashtra in Western India: A survey based on vaccine characteristics. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, v. 116, p. S62, 2022. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2021.12.146
SHAJKOVCI, A.; RUTI, R.; ALTINBAY, A. et al. Capturing and dissecting the complexity of production and dissemination of conspiracy theories, hate-based rhetoric, and mis-and disinformation online. In: CORREIA, J. C.; JERÓNIMO, P.; AMARAL, I. Disinformation Studies: Perspectives from an Emerging Field. Covilhã: Labcom, 2022. p. 23-52
SOARES, F.; RECUERO, R.; VOLCAN, T. et al. Research note: Bolsonaro’s firehose: How Covid-19 disinformation on WhatsApp was used to fight a government political crisis in Brazil. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 2021. doi: 10.37016/mr-2020-54
SØRENSEN, K. Smart Health! Expanding the Need for New Literacies. In: PURNAT, T. D.; NGUYEN, T.; BRIAND, S. (Orgs.). Managing Infodemics in the 21st Century. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023, p. 71–83. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-27789-4_6
SWETLAND, S. B.; ROTHROCK, A. N.; ANDRIS, H. et al. Accuracy of health‐related information regarding COVID‐19 on Twitter during a global pandemic. World Medical & Health Policy, v. 13, n. 3, p. 503–517, 2021. doi: 10.1002/wmh3.468
TUTERS, M.; WILLAERT, T.; MEYER, T. How Science Gets Drawn Into Global Conspiracy Narratives. Issues in Science and Technology, v. 39, n. 3, p. 32–36, 2023.
USCINSKI, J. E. Conspiracy theories: a primer. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2020.
VAN DER LINDEN, S. Foolproof: Why Misinformation Infects Our Minds and How to Build Immunity. London: W. W. Norton & Company, 2023.
VAN PROOIJEN, J-W. The Psychology of Conspiracy Theories. 1. ed. New York: Routledge, 2018. doi: 10.4324/9781315525419
VAN ROSSUM, G. Python Tutorial, Technical Report CS-R9526. Amsterdam: Centrum voor Wiskunde en Informatica (CWI), 1995.
ZHANG, Y.; SHARMA, K.; LIU, Y. Capturing Cross-Platform Interaction for Identifying Coordinated Accounts of Misinformation Campaigns. In: KAMPS, J.; GOEURIOT, L.; CRESTANI, F. et al (Orgs.). Advances in Information Retrieval. ECIR 2023. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2023, v. 13981, p. 694–702. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-28238-6_61
Downloads
Publicado
Edição
Seção
Licença
Copyright (c) 2024 Revista Educação Pública
Este trabalho está licenciado sob uma licença Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Todos os artigos publicados na Revista EaD em Foco recebem a licença Creative Commons - Atribuição 4.0 Internacional (CC BY 4.0). Todas as publicações subsequentes, completas ou parciais, deverão ser feitas com o reconhecimento, nas citações, da Revista EaD em Foco como a editora original do artigo.
